Header Frame Relay

Frame Relay merupakan suatu layanan data paket yang memungkinkan beberapa pengguna menggunakan satu jalur transmisi pada waktu yang bersamaan. Untuk lalu lintas komunikasi yang padat, Frame Relay jauh lebih efisien daripada sirkit sewa (leased line) yang disediakan khusus untuk satu pelanggan (dedicated), yang umumnya hanya terpakai 10% sampai 20% dari kapasitas lebarpita (bandwidth)-nya. Dalam teknik telekomunikasi, penyakelaran paket (packet switching) dikembangkan untuk memenuhi komunikasi data yang sifatnya cepat dan akurat. Sebuah paket dapat digambarkan seperti sebuah amplop atau sampul surat tercatat; mempunyai alamat tujuan, alamat pengirim atau alamat kembali jika kiriman tidak sampai, dan tentu saja isi pesannya atau berita-nya sebagai hal yang pokok. Dalam paket yang berisi data elektronik, masih dilengkapi dengan deteksi kesalahan, ada pula konfirmasi dari si penerima dalam bentuk kode yang dikirim kembali ke pengirim, apakah paket dapat diterima secara utuh. Pada paket data ini ada istilah frame (bingkai) yakni yang menyatakan batas bingkai sebuah paket. Batas frame ditandai dengan flag. Demikianlah sehingga data dibawa sepanjang jalur komunikasi dalam bentuk frame-frame. Struktur dasar sebuah frame adalah seperti terlihat pada



Keterangan:

GFI = General Format Identifier
LCN = Logical Channel Number
LGN = Logical Channel Group Number
PKT TYPE ID = packet type identification
FCS = Frame check sequence
DLCI = data link connection Indentifier
C/R = Command/response field bit
(application specific-not modified by network)
FECN = Forward Explicit Congestion notification
BECN = Backward Explicit Congestion notification
DE = Discard Eligibility Indicator
EA = Address Extension
(allow indication of 3 or 4 byte header)

Penjelasan Gambar: (a) Struktur dasar frame, (b) Field informasi pada X.25
(c) Struktur frame pada Frame Relay, dan (d) Format header pada Frame Relay Gambar 1a, sedang Gambar 1b menyatakan uraian isi information field pada paket X.25. Gambar 1c dan 1d masing masing menyatakan struktur frame dan header (kepala paket) pada Frame Relay. Header merupakan data tambahan pada informasi yang dikirimkan, berisi tanda pengenal pengirim maupun penerima serta tanda-tanda lain yang diperlukan untuk menjamin penyampaian yang benar dari seluruh informasinya (lihat Gambar 1b dan 1d).
Standar internasional untuk akses jaringan dengan penyakelaran paket yang pertama muncul adalah X.25, yang direkomendasikan oleh CCITT (kini ITU-T) pada tahun 1976. Frame Relay yang muncul setelah X.25 ternyata jauh lebih efektif daripada X.25, karena X.25 kerjanya menjadi lambat karena adanya koreksi dan deteksi kesalahan. Frame Relay memiliki sedikit perbedaan; ia mendefinisikan secara berulang header-nya pada bagian awal dari frame seperti terlihat pada Gambar 1d, sehingga dihasilkan header frame normal 2-byte (satu byte atau octet terdiri dari delapan bit). Header Frame Relay dapat juga diperluas menjadi tiga atau empat byte untuk menambah ruang alamat total yang disediakan. Dalam gambar-gambar yang mengilustrasikan jaringan-jaringan Frame Relay, piranti-piranti pengguna ditunjukkan sebagai pengarah-pengarah LAN, karena hal tersebut merupakan aplikasi Frame Relay yang berlaku secara umum. Tentu saja mereka dapat juga merupakan jembatan-jembatan LAN, Host atau front-end processor atau piranti lainnya dengan sebuah antarmuka Frame Relay.
Header Frame Relay terdiri dari deretan angka sepuluh bit, DLCI (Data Link Connection Identifier)-nya merupakan nomor rangkaian virtual Frame Relay yang berkaitan dengan arah tujuan frame tersebut. Dalam hal hubungan antar kerja LAN-WAN, DLCI ini akan menunjukkan port-port yang merupakan LAN pada sisi tujuan yang akan dicapai. Adanya DLCI tersebut memungkinkan data mencapai simpul (node) Frame Relay yang akan dikirimi melalui jaringan dengan menempuh proses tiga langkah yang sederhana yakni:

* Memeriksa integritas dari frame-nya dengan menggunakan FCS (Frame Check Sequence). Jika melalui pemeriksaan ini diketahui adanya suatu kesalahan, frame tersebut akan dibuang.
* Mencari DLCI dalam suatu tabel. Jika DLCI tersebut tidak didefinisikan untuk link (hubungan) yang dimaksud, frame akan dibuang.
* Mengirim ulang (disebut mrelay) frame tersebut menuju tujuannya dengan mengirimnya ke luar, ke port atau trunk (jalur) yang telah dispesifikasikan dalam daftar tabelnya.

Dengan demikian, simpul Frame Relay tidak melakukan banyak langkah pemrosesan sebagaimana halnya dalam protokol-protokol yang mempunyai keistimewaan penuh seperti X.25.

are mars can be lived by us?

Indonesian version

acquaintance with the planet Mars

This planet is the 4th closest planet from the sun. The apparition of the planet is reddish so often referred to as the red planet. This planet has 2 satellites, namely Phobos and Deimos. This planet for 687 days in orbit around the sun. This planet also rotates. When rotation is 25.62 hours. Mars similar to Earth's size, but smaller. Characteristics are almost similar to Earth's!

What's on MARS?

Acquainted with the TCP / IP

Indonesian Version

History

History of TCP / IP commencement of the birth of the ARPANET packet switching network is digital, funded by DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) in 1969. Meanwhile, the ARPANET continued to increase in size so that the protocol used at that time could no longer accommodate the number of nodes is more and more. Therefore, DARPA funded the creation of the more common communication protocols, namely TCP / IP. He was adopted into the standard ARPANET in 1983.

To facilitate the process of conversion, DARPA is also funding a project that implements this protocol into BSD UNIX, so began the marriage of UNIX and TCP / IP .. At first the internet is used to refer to networks that use internet protocol (IP) but with the development of networks, the term is now a generic term used for all classes of networks. Internet is used to refer to communities worldwide computer networks that are interconnected with TCP / IP.


Excellence

The development of TCP / IP is widely accepted and practically become de-facto standard computer network-related traits contained in the protocol itself, which is keunggulun of TCP / IP, namely:

• The development of TCP / IP uses an open protocol standard that is widely available. Everyone can develop software to be able to communicate using this protocol. This makes use of TCP / IP extends very quickly, especially in terms of adoption by a variety of operating systems and network applications.
• Not dependent on the hardware or operating system specific network so TCP / IP suitable for bringing together a wide range of networks, eg Ethernet, token ring, dial-up line, X-25 net and others.
• How the addressing is unique on a global scale, allowing the computer to uniquely identify the other computers in the entire network, even though its network of worldwide Internet network. Every computer connected to a TCP / IP (Internet) will have an address that belongs only to him.
• TCP / IP routing has the facilities and other types of services that enable applied to the internetwork.

Architecture and Network Protocol TCP / IP

In a computer network architecture, there is a layer-layer (layer) which has a specific task and has its own protocol. ISO (International Standards Organization) has issued a standard for computer network architecture known as the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI).

Comparison of Architecture OSI and TCP / IP
Although the numbers vary, but all the functions of the layers of the OSI architecture are covered by the architecture of TCP / IP. The details of the function of each layer architecture of TCP / IP is as follows:

• Physical Layer (physical layer)
Is the lowest layer that defines the physical quantities such as media communications, voltages, currents, etc.. This layer may vary depending on the medium of communication on the network in question. TCP / IP is flexible so it can integrate the integration of various networks with physical media is different.

• Network Access Layer
function similar to the OSI Data Link layer. These layers organize the distribution of data frames on the physical medium is reliable. This layer usually provides services for error detection and correction of data transmitted. Some examples of protocols used at this layer is X.25 public network, Ethernet for networking Etehernet, Package Radio AX.25 networks and so on.

• Internet Layer
defining how the relationship can occur between two parties that are on different networks such as the Network Layer of the OSI. On the Internet network that consists of tens of millions of hosts and hundreds of thousands of local networks, this layer is responsible for ensuring that a packet that is sent to find the goal wherever located. Therefore, this layer has a particularly important role in realizing internetworking covering large areas (worldwide Internet). Some of the important task at this layer are:
1. Addressing, which complement each datagram with the Internet address of the destination. Addresses on this protocol known as Internet Protocol Address (IP Address). Because the addressing (addressing) on ​​the network TCP / IP is at this level (software), then the TCP / IP network independent of the type of media and computer use.
2. Routing, which determines where the datagram will be sent in order to achieve the desired goal. This function is the most important functions of the Internet Protocol (IP). As a protocol that is connectionless, the routing process is fully determined by the network. Sender has no control over it sends packets to reach the goal. Routers on the network TCP / IP is very crucial in the delivery of datagrams from the receivers to a destination.

• Transport Layer
define the ways to perform data transmission between end to end hosted reliably. This layer ensures that the information
received at the receiver side is equal to the information submitted to the sender. To that end, this layer has several important functions, among others:

1. Flow Control. Delivery of data that has been broken down into packets must be so arranged so that the sender not to transmit data at speeds that exceed the ability of recipients to receive the data.

2. Error Detection. Sender and receiver also complement the data with some information that could be used to check the data transmitted is free from error. If you found an error in the received data packet, the receiver will not accept data. Sender will retransmit the data packets that contain errors earlier. However, this can cause significant delay.

In the TCP / IP, the protocol used is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP is used for applications that require reliability data, whereas UDP is used for applications that require short packet length and does not demand high reliability. TCP has a function of flow control and error detection and connection-oriented nature. In contrast to the UDP which is connectionless there is no mechanism to check data and flow control, so called unreliable UDP protocol. For some matters relating to the efficiency and simplification, some applications choose to use UDP as the transport protocol. An example is a database application that merely query and response, or other applications that are highly sensitive to delay such as video conferencing. Such applications can tolerate a bit error (image or sound can still be understood), but would be uncomfortable to be seen if there is a significant delay.

• Application Layer
is the last layer in the architecture of TCP / IP that serves to define the applications that run on the network. Therefore, there are many protocols in this layer, in accordance with the number of TCP / IP applications that can be run. Examples are SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) for sending e-mail, FTP (File Transfer
Protocol) for file transfer, HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) for web applications, NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol) for the distribution of news group and others. Each application generally uses TCP and IP protocols, so the whole family is named after the protocol with TCP / IP.

Delivery and Acceptance Data Package

Layers and protocols contained in the network architecture of TCP / IP describes the functions in communication between two computers. Each layer receives data from the layers above or below it, then process the data according to the protocol functions they have and forward it to the next layer. When two computers communicate, there is the flow of data between sender and receiver through the layers above. At the sender, the data flow is from top to bottom. Data from the user or an application sent to the Transport Layer in the form of packets with a certain length. The protocol adds a number of bits in each packet as a header that contains information about the sequence of segmentation to maintain data integrity and pariti bits for error detection and correction.
From the Transport layer, which has given the header data is forwarded to the Layer Network / Internet. In this layer occurs by the addition of protocol header that contains the destination address information, the sender address and other information needed to perform routing. Then there was the direction of routing data, ie to the network and the interface where the data will be sent, if more than one interface on the host. In this layer can also occur segmentation data, because the length of the package to be delivered must be adapted to the conditions of communication media on a network that will be traversed.

Final data will arrive at the Physical Layer which sends the data in the form of electrical magnitudes / physical such as voltage, current, radio waves or light, according to media used.

At the receiver, the data processing is similar as above only in the opposite sequence (from bawqah upwards). Received signal at the physical layer to be changed in the data. The protocol will examine the integrity and if not found error t header that is added will be removed.

Furthermore, the data passed to the network layer. In this layer, the destination address of the packet data received will be checked. If the destination address is the address given host, then the network layer header will be removed and the data will be forwarded to the layer above it. But if not, the data will be forwarded to the destination network, in accordance with routing information owned.

At the Transport layer, the truth of the data will be examined again, using the header information sent by the sender. If no error, the data packets received will be rearranged in this order at the time will be sent and forwarded to the application layer at the receiver.

The process is carried out each layer is known as data encapsulation. Encapsulation is transparent in nature. That is, a layer does not need to know how many layers above it and below it. Each one is only doing his job. At the sender, this task is to receive data from the layer above, processing such data in accordance with the protocol functions, adds protocol headers and forwarding to the layer below.

At the receiver, this task is to receive data from the layer below it, according to the data processing functions of the protocol, the protocol headers are removed and continue to layer on top of it.

Internet Protocol

Internet Protocol (IP) functions delivering data packets to the correct address. Therefore, the Internet Protocol plays a very important part of the network TCP / IP. Because all applications are TCP / IP must be based on Internet Protocol in order to run properly.

IP is a protocol at the network layer are:
1. Connectionless, ie, every packet of data sent at one time going through the route independently. IP packet (datagram) is going through a route that is determined by each router through which the datagram. This allows the entire datagram arrives at its destination in a different order for different route anyway.
2. Or unreliability unreliable IP protocol does not guarantee that the datagram must be sent to the destination. He will only do a best effort delivery that is doing their best so that the packets sent to its destination.

A datagram may not arrive safely to its destination because of the following:
• The bit error during transmission of a datagram to a medium
• The router is skipped mendiscard datagram due to congestion and lack of buffer memory space
• The breakdown in route to a destination for a while due to the router is down
The occurrence of chaos routing, so the datagram looping

IP is also designed to be able to pass through various media of communication that has the characteristics and different speeds. On Ethernet networks, the length of a datagram will be greater than the length of the datagram to the public network that uses the telephone network media, or on the wireless network. This difference is solely to achieve a good throughput on each medium. In general, the faster data transfer capabilities in the media, the greater the maximum datagram length is used. As a result of these differences, the IP datagram can be fragmented when switching from medium to high speed low speed (eg from 10 Mbps Ethernet LAN to a leased line using Point-to-Point Protocol with a speed of 64 kbps). At the router / host recipients, the datagram this fragment that were to be put together again before passing to the next router, or to the transport layer on the destination host. This adds processing time on the router and cause delay.

The whole nature described in the above is the result of the protocol efficiency is sacrificed as a consequence of the superiority IP protocol. These advantages combine the capabilities of the various media of communication with different characteristics, with the development of flexible network, able to change the routing automatically if a route fails, and so on. For example, to be able to dynamically change the routing, the routing mechanism chosen is determined by network conditions and network elements (routers). In addition, the routing process should also be made for each datagram, not only at the beginning of a relationship. Let us consider the structure of the header of the IP protocols and their respective functions.

Each protocol has extra bits beyond the information / data it carries. In addition to information, these bits also serve as a tool of control. In terms of efficiency, the greater the number of these extra bits, the smaller the efficiency of communication that run. Conversely the smaller the amount of these extra bits, the higher the efficiency of communication that are running. Here is done the trade-off between reliability and efficiency datagram. For example, the IP datagram in order to find the goal, it needs additional information to be included in this header.

Acquainted with BNC connectors

indonesian version

BNC (bayonet Neill-Concelman) connector is a very common type of RF connector used for terminating coaxial cable

The use of BNC connectors are used for RF signal connections, for analog and Serial Digital Interface video signals, amateur radio antenna connections, aviation electronics (avionics) and various types of electronic test equipment.
BNC connectors are an alternative to the RCA connector when used for composite video on commercial video devices, although many consumer electronics devices with RCA jacks can be used with BNC only commercial video equipment via a simple adapter. BNC connectors are commonly used on 10Base2 thin Ethernet networks, both on cable interconnections and network cards, although most have been replaced with a new, wired Ethernet device does not use coaxial cable. Some ARCnet network using BNC-terminated coax.

Specification

BNC connector on the 50 and 75 ohm versions. Initially all the 50 ohm cable and used with other impedances, the small mismatch is negligible at low frequencies. 75 ohm types can sometimes be recognized by reduced or absent dielectric in the marriage ended. Various versions are designed to mate with one another, [1] although the impedance mismatch in the cable can cause signal reflections. Typically, specified for use on the frequency of each to 4 and 2 GHz.
BNC75 ohm connectors primarily used for video and DS3 Telco central office applications while 50 ohms and RF is used for data. Convention happening at the BBC on BNC connectors are used for video always 50 ohms may be due to a 50 ohm BNC connectors will damage the socket 75 ohms when connected in error. Many VHF receivers used 75 ohm antenna inputs so Often used 75 ohm BNC connectors. Many receivers use VHF 75 ohm antenna inputs so commonly used 75 ohm BNC connectors.



History

Connectors are named after the bayonet mount locking mechanism and two inventors, Paul Neill of Bell Labs (inventor of the N connector) and Amphenol engineer Carl Concelman (inventor of the connector C), and is much smaller than both N and C connectors. Other backronyms which has BNC picked up over the years include: "Child-Neill Concelman", "Baby N connector", "British Naval Connector", "bayonet Nut Connector", "bayonet Naval Connector". The basis for the development of the BNC connector is the work of Octavio M. Salati, a graduate of the Moore School of Electrical Engineering from the University of Pennsylvania (BSEE'36, PhD'63). He filed a patent in 1945 (awarded 1951) when working at Hazeltine Electronics Corporation to be placed on the coaxial cable connector that will minimize wave reflection / loss.

Similar connectors

Thread J version of the BNC connector, known as the TNC connector (for Threaded Neill-Concelman) are also available. Have superior performance with a BNC connector on the wave frequency.

Triaxial BNC Connector

BNC connectors are commonly used in NIM electronics, but now often replaced with 00 miniature Lemo connector that allows for high densities. For high voltages, MHV and SHV connectors are typically used. MHV connectors are easily mistaken for BNC connectors and can be made to the male by forcing them harshly. SHV connectors are developed as a safer alternative to MHV connector and will not intermate usual with BNC connectors.
In the USSR, has been copied as a BNC connector plug SR-50 (Russian: СР-50) and SR-75 (Russian: СР-75). This connector is slightly different dimensions (as a result of recalculating the Imperial Metric system), but generally are able to BNC, sometimes with the force applied.
Twin BNC (also known as twinax) uses the same connector bayonet latching BNC connector shell as usual, but contains two independent contact points (one male and one female), which allows the connection of 78 ohm or 95 ohm shielded differential pair such as RG-108A . [3] They are capable of operating at 100 MHz and 100 volts. Twin BNC connectors will not intermate usual with BNC connectors.
Triaxial (also known as TRIAX) is a BNC connector on the variant that carries both signal and maintain and ground conductors. It's used in sensitive electronic measuring system, especially from Keithley manufacturing. [Citation needed] The initial designed with extra care just a conductor, but it will be a tri-axial connector also includes three towage arrangements to get rid of an accident forced marriage with a BNC connector. Adaptors that there are a number of possible interconnection between the tri-ax and BNC connectors.

Usefulness

BNC connectors are used for signal connections such as:
• analog and serial digital video signal interface
• amateur radio antenna
• aviation electronics (avionics)
• test equipment.

(Wikipedia.org with some changes)

Water For The Future

Indonesian version

Inescapably about the water that becomes natural resources which are vital to the life of all living things on earth. ranging from animals, plants, and humans. all human activities most need water. such as bathing, drinking, cooking and so forth.

Often we hear that the earth is called the blue planet because water covers nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface, but not infrequently we find it difficult to get clean water. The rise of industrial activities in the cities resulted in depleted soil water reserves. Excessive exploitation of ground water resulted in a decrease instruisi sea water and surface soil due to empty underground rivers. Then the garbage disposal and waste carelessly causing pollution on the water, due to excessive exploitation of water and waste disposal and waste carelessly that causes water quality and quantity decrease. I wonder what will happen to the water in the future, if we let this continue!.

Did you know? That about 60% of our body is water. Try to imagine! What would happen if we do not get water bias or lack of water and what would happen if we get water but not clean water suitable for consumption, perhaps we would be easily attacked by diseases and dehydrated. Lack of water in our bodies, would cause our bodies do not function normally biased as it should, not scary enough!

We all know that water is a universal solvent. Therefore easily absorb water or dissolve the various particles are encountered, so that water can easily become contaminated, in a cycle in the ground water continues to meet and dissolve various inorganic minerals, heavy metals and micro-organisms. Water is healthy for our bodies is water that has low TDS. TDS or total dissolved solids is the number of different inorganic chemicals including heavy metals that are dissolved in 1 liter of water. The lower the TDS was the better for health. According to test results from several brands of bottled water circulating in Indonesia typically have an average of about 100 ppm TDS. If you want to test yourself, you are biased using the TDS-meter. TDS-meter price is quite affordable. Therefore we must maintain the quality and quantity of water ranging from saving it and not pollute it to our lives in the future ..

What should we do? Several ways have been done such as deforestation and reforestation of water injection on the rivers in the dry underground. But it is still not solve the problem of bias is the water crisis, over exploitation of ground water that carried huge industry party continues. In addition waste water use and the lack or low level of community participation on this matter contributed to the greater water crisis.

Did you know? That about 60% of our body is water. Try to imagine! What would happen if we do not get water bias or lack of water and what would happen if we get water but not clean water suitable for consumption, perhaps we would be easily attacked by diseases and dehydrated. Lack of water in our bodies, would cause our bodies do not function normally biased as it should, not scary enough!

We all know that water is a universal solvent. Therefore easily absorb water or dissolve the various particles are encountered, so that water can easily become contaminated, in a cycle in the ground water continues to meet and dissolve various inorganic minerals, heavy metals and micro-organisms. Water is healthy for our bodies is water that has low TDS. TDS or total dissolved solids is the number of different inorganic chemicals including heavy metals that are dissolved in 1 liter of water. The lower the TDS was the better for health. According to test results from several brands of bottled water circulating in Indonesia typically have an average of about 100 ppm TDS. If you want to test yourself, you are biased using the TDS-meter. TDS-meter price is quite affordable. Therefore we must maintain the quality and quantity of water ranging from saving it and not pollute it to our lives in the future ..

What should we do? Several ways have been done such as deforestation and reforestation of water injection on the rivers in the dry underground. But it is still not solve the problem of bias is the water crisis, over exploitation of ground water that carried huge industry party continues. In addition waste water use and the lack or low level of community participation on this matter contributed to the greater water crisis.

Hope can add insight and knowledge. . . thank you

acquainted with the digital signal and analog signal

Indonesian Version

Previous ... surely we often hear the words "signal" ...

Actually what's the signal?
In electrical engineering, information engineering and control engineering, signal is defined as the magnitude of change in time or in space, and bring some information (wikipedia.org) and signal known as the two types, namely the analog signals and digital signals.

What is exactly is meant by digital signals and analog signals?

Generally didefinisakan analog signal as the signal waveform data in a continue (ongoing), which carry information by changing the characteristics of waves. The two most important characteristics possessed by the analog signal is amplitude and frequency. Analog signaling is usually expressed by a sine wave, sine wave given is basic to all forms of analog signals.
By using an analog signal, then the data transmission range can reach great distances, but the signal is easily affected by noise. Wave at the analog signal that is generally shaped sine wave has three basic variables, namely amplitude, frequency and phase.
· The amplitude is a measure of high and low voltage analog signals.
Frequency is the number of analog signal waveform in seconds.
· Phase angle is greater than the analog signal at a given time (multiple sources).

Furthermore, the digital signal. digital signal is a data signal in the form of pulses that can undergo sudden changes and has magnitude 0 and 1. Digital signal has only two states, namely 0 and 1, so it is not easily affected by noise, the information process was easy, fast and accurate. but the transmission of digital signals only achieve data transmission range is relatively close. Usually this signal is also known as discrete signals.

This digital signal has a range of unique features that can not be found on analog technology, namely:
* Ability to send information at the speed of light that can make the information can be sent at high speed.
* The use of repeated - again against the information does not affect the quality and quantity informsi itself.
* Information can be easily processed and modified into various shapes.
* Can process the information in very large numbers and send them interactively.

The advantages of digital information is compressed and transferred separately to ease other electronic media. Excess is optimally utilized by Internet technology, for example by putting it into a website or generally referred to her - the upload. This way is called online in the cyber world.

Protocol on multiple operating systems

Indonesian version

Protocol on Machintosh

AppleTalk is a protocol suite developed by Apple.inc for computer networks. network model of apple talk following the OSI layer. The following network model:

OSI Model	Corresponding AppleTalk layers
Application	Apple Filing Protocol (AFP)
Presentation	Apple Filing Protocol (AFP)
Session	Zone Information Protocol (ZIP) AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP) AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol (ADSP)
Transport	AppleTalk Transaction Protocol (ATP) AppleTalk Echo Protocol (AEP) Name Binding Protocol (NBP) Routing Table Maintenance Protocol (RTMP)
Network	Datagram Delivery Protocol (DDP)
Data link	EtherTalk Link Access Protocol (ELAP) LocalTalk Link Access Protocol (LLAP) TokenTalk Link Access Protocol (TLAP) Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
Physical	LocalTalk driver Ethernet driver Token Ring driver FDDI driver

(wikipedia.org)

The following are some explanations on the apple talk protocol devices between:

* AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol (ADSP) Served as monitors the flow of data, control data between two computers located in this protocol.

* AplleTalk File Protocol (AFP) Serves to handle the file, well as read-only or hidden that this protocol is assigned.

* AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP) protocol to check messages in the form of parts of its functions is to check whether the application is complete and validkah a message from the parts of an existing message.

* AppleTalk Transaction Protocol (ATP) check the accuracy of the messages sent to the network.

* Echo Protocol (EP) protocol giving the message that the message has been conveyed is also tasked to notify that the message is sent in full, a late notice of the information, and check traffic so that messages can be dikrim maximum.

* Name Binding Protocol (NBP) Translators nodes on the network into a user defined address.

* Page Description Language (PDL) The set of functions used by the printer to control the formatting of text on paper.

* Routing Table Maintenance Protocol (RTMP) Monitoring the location of the nodes on the network and maintain data base of the relationship between these nodes. If one node fails, RTMP can specify an alternate route.

* Zone Information Protocol (ZIP) Analyze the set of network configuration and device addresses into groups, or zones in order to generate efficient access.

well enough about the protocol is the introduction to this talk apple.

Protokol On Novell Netware

IPX / SPX is short for Internetwork Packet Exchange / Sequenced Packet Exchange. IPX and SPX networking protocol is used primarily on a network using Novell NetWare IPX and SPX Operating Systems derived from Xerox Network Services' IDP and SPP protocols, respectively. IPX is the network layer protocol (layer 3 of the OSI Model) while the SPX is a transport layer protocol (layer 4 of the OSI Model). SPX layer sits on top of the IPX layer and provides connection-oriented services between two nodes in the network. SPX is used primarily by client / server applications. IPX and SPX both provide connection services similar to TCP / IP IPX protocol having similarities to IP and SPX protocol has similarities with TCP.

Novell is largely responsible for the use IPX as a popular computer network protocol because of their dominance in the network operating system software market (with Novell Netware) from the late 1980s until the mid-1990s.

IPX Handle:

* Logical Network awarded a 32-bit hexadecimal addresses in the range 0x1 - 0xFFFFFFFE.
* Host a 48-bit node address which by default is set to the MAC address of network interface cards. Address of the node is added to the network address to create a unique identifier for the host on the network.
* Number of current network 00:00:00:00 means the network.
* The broadcast address is FF: FF: FF: FF.

Similarities with IP

IPX network address is conceptually identical to the network part of IP address (the parts with netmask bits 1), then the node address has the same meaning as bits of an IP address with netmask bits 0. As the node address is usually identical to the MAC address of network adapters address resolution protocol is not required.

For the routing entries in the IPX routing table similar to the IP routing table, routing is done by the network address and address for each node tissues of the next router is determined the same way the IP address / netmask specified in the IP routing table.

IPX melalui Ethernet

IPX can be transmitted over Ethernet using one of the following 4 types of encapsulation:
1. 802.3 (raw) used in legacy systems and involves IPX data starts immediately after the 802.3 frame header. Package starts with Ethernet Destination Address (6 bytes), the Source Ethernet Address (6 bytes), Frame Length (2 bytes) followed by IPX data. Finally, it begins with two 0xFF bytes (Checksum field), and this can be used to distinguish this type of IPX encapsulation of two types.

2. 802.2 (Novell) comprises 802.3 frame header (destination, source, length) followed by the LLC header (3 bytes - 0xE0, 0xE0, 0x03) followed by IPX data. 0xE0 fields of LLC header stand for 'Novell' protocol.

3. 802.2 (SNAP) comprises 802.3 frame header, LLC header (3 bytes - 0xAA, 0xAA, 0x03), SNAP header (5 bytes - 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x81, 0x37) and the data fields of LLC header stand IPX0xAA for 'SNAP' protocol. The first three bytes of SNAP header are OUI followed by 2 bytes of IPX Ether Type.

4. Ethernet II consists of an Ethernet II frame header (Destination, Source, EtherType) followed by IPX data.
(wikipedia.org with some changes)

well enough already about the introduction to this IPX protocols.


Protocol on Sun Microsystem (SunOS)

in the 1980's Sun Microsystem.inc develop NFS (network file system). NFS is a collection of protocols used to access multiple file systems over a network. NFS is designed to allow the export of file systems on heterogeneous networks (consisting of system-different operating systems and platforms are also different). NFS technology was licensed to more than 200 vendors of computers and networks, and has made its implementation on many platforms and operating systems, including the UNIX, GNU / Linux, Microsoft Windows, and mainframe environments.
NFS can allow clients to find and access files stored on remote network servers. Indeed, the initial design specification is devoted to the use of NFS in the local network (LAN) and is not optimized for use in a WAN. However, the NFS version 3 is used today can be used in a WAN networks, as well as when he worked on the LAN. Features that are owned by the NFS version 3 is as follows:

* Supports file sizes up to Terabyte unit, using the indicator file size up to 64-bit (in previous versions, simply implementing the indicator file size up to 32-bit only, so that total maximum file size is 4 gigabytes).
* The maximum size of data packet supported is 64 Kilobytes (in previous versions, only reaches 8 KB for each package, so more time in transferring data from one host to another host that is running NFS).
* Can choose whether to use the protocol UDP or TCP transport layer (in previous versions, NFS uses only UDP transport layer protocol that is less well implemented in the network WAN)
* Server can perform knowl-cache's of requests made by clients.

NFS uses a network protocol layered architecture (layered protocol) were made based on the OSI network reference model, as shown in the following table.

Lapisan OSI	Protokol NFS
Physical Layer	What are the (commonly used is Ethernet)
Data-link Layer	What are the (commonly used is Ethernet)
Network Layer	Internet Protocol (IP)
Transport Layer	User Datagram Protocol (UDP) atau Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Session Layer	Remote Procedure Call (RPC) Protocol
Presentation Layer	External Data Representation (XDR) Protocol
Application Layer	Network File System (NFS) dan Network Information System (NIS)

Protocol On Microsoft Windows

In windows known to use TCP / IP, what is it?

Protocol TCP / IP was developed in the late 1970s until the early 1980s as a standard protocol for connecting computers and networks to form an extensive network (WAN). TCP / IP is an open networking standard that is independent of physical network transport mechanism used, so it can be used anywhere. This protocol uses a simple addressing scheme known as an IP address (IP Address), which allows up to several hundred million computers to be able to relate to each other on the Internet. This protocol is routable, which means the protocol is suitable for connecting different systems (such as Microsoft Windows and UNIX families) to form a heterogeneous network.

Protocol TCP / IP has always evolved over time, given the increasing demand on computer networks and the Internet. Development is done by several agencies, such as the Internet Society (ISOC), Internet Architecture Board (IAB), and the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). Various kinds of protocols that runs over TCP / IP addressing scheme, and the concept of TCP / IP are defined in documents called Request for Comments (RFC) issued by the IETF.
TCP / IP protocol suite consists of four layers: Application, Transport, Internetwork, and network interfaces. Layer can be seen as a hierarchy like this:
Application Layer is an application that sends data to the transport layer. Eg FTP, email programs and web browsers.
Transport layer is responsible for communication between applications. This layer set the channel information and may provide error checking. The data is divided into several packets that are sent to the internet layer with a header. The header contains the destination address, source address and checksum. The checksum is checked by the receiving machine to see if the package is missing on the route.
Internetwork Layer is responsible for communication between machines. This layer-engcapsul meg of transport layer packets into IP datagrams and routing algorithms to determine where datagaram should be sent. The entry of the datagram is processed and inspected for faults before the pass at the Transport layer.
Networks interface layer is the lowest level of the arrangement of the TCP / IP. This layer is a device driver that allows datagaram IP sent to or from the physical network. Dapaat form a network cable, Ethernet, frame relay, Token Ring, ISDN, ATM networks, radio, satellite or other device that can transfer data from system to system. Network interface is an abstraction layer that facilitates communication between the multitude network architecture.

Here is a traditional service that can run on top of TCP / IP based on information from wikipedia:

• Sending a file (file transfer). File Transfer Protocol (FTP) allows a single computer user to be able to send or receive files to a host on the network. Authentication method used is the use of user name (user name) and password'', although many also FTP accessible anonymously (anonymous).
• Remote login. Network terminal Protocol (telnet) allows computer users can log in to a computer on a network remotely. So this means that the user uses the computer as an extension of the computer network.
• Computer mail. Used to implement electronic mail systems.
• Network File System (NFS). Service access files that can be accessed remotely allowing clients to access files on network computers, as if the file is stored locally
• Remote execution. Allows computer users to run a particular program in a different computer. Usually useful if the user is using a computer is limited, whereas it requires a lot of sources who in a computer system. There are several types of remote execution, there is a basic commands only, ie which can be run in the same computer system and some systems that use Remote Procedure Call (RPC), which allows the program to call a subroutine that will run on a computer system is different. (for example in the Berkeley UNIX there is a command rsh and rexec.)
• Name server useful as a storage database host name used on the Internet (Further information can be found in RFC 822 and RFC 823 which describes the use of the name server protocol that aims to determine the host name on the Internet.)

Protocol On Symbian OS

Info from symbian official website:
Symbian OS is the operating system 32 bit, little endian with the concept and runs on several types of ARM microprocessor architecture. Symbian process works with the principle of preemptive multitasking. Support for devices integrated in the kernel as a kernel extension that is written in a DLL (dynamic linking library) are separate. The kernel runs in privileged mode and provides services to applications that run in unprivileged mode through the user library. Symbian OS also provides a collection of library-like collection of networking (TCP / IP, PPP, FTP)
Symbian OS Network Stacks
Protocol TCP / IP can connect to the internet lewet used by applications such as email and web.
useful as a storage database host name used on the Internet.

Protocol On IBM PC-DOS

Protocol developed by IBM that is NetBIOS.

Netbios is the Basic Input / Output System. IBM Corporation in an effort to provide a means to develop standards in the underlying operating system uses a computer to access network services. NetBIOS can be used by IBM-compatible system of any network. Since different systems have special ways to utilize the underlying operating system facilities, then the implementation of the NetBIOS individuals tend to have differences with each other so that is not compatible. In other words, if you use NetBIOS and replace your network operating system, then chances are you also using a new version of NetBIOS.
But NetBIOS still has an advantage by hiding from the user before any vague and specific aspects of the communications network or operating system. Instead, the user can observe a number of network functions more understandable.
Networking software can access the NetBIOS function by giving instructions to the operating system to run the function is a particular network. The software implementing this by sending a small piece of data called network control block (NCB). NCB sent to the operating system, which is programmed to understand and respond in the form of the appropriate network services, such as sending messages to other computers.

Why do many OS that supports TCP / IP?

All modern operating systems offer support for TCP / IP and most large networks rely on TCP / IP for most of the traffic network. TCP / IP is also a standard protocol for the Internet. In addition, many standard connectivity utilities are available for accessing and transferring data between systems that are not similar.
Some standard utilities, such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Telnet, included with Windows Server 2003. Networks TCP / IP can be integrated easily with the Internet. Because of its popularity, TCP / IP was developed perfectly and offers lots of utility that is able to increase the use, performance (performance), and security. Jaringanjaringan based on other transport protocols, such as ATM or AppleTalk, can berinterface with TCP / IP network through a device known as the gateway.